Two Essays written by Year 12 A-Level Sports Studies Students

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SPORTS STUDIES ASSIGNMENT
Phil Dimech 12CB
Discuss the effect of commercialism and the role of the media in American sport Introduction
In order to answer this question, I will obviously be looking at American sport, but also at some examples of similar situations in UK sport, as I feel that the changes that have occurred in American sport have also to some extent occurred in sport in the UK and other countries around the world, and - living in this country - more examples of UK sport are available. Major points that I will be looking at include the salaries of top pro athletes in various sports, their attitudes to their sport, and the intermissions during the game Also worth considering is the public image of individuals who previously may have been interested only in playing their sport.
Main answer
Firstly, how do the media and sponsorship fit into sport?
Diagram This diagram shows that the three things are interdependent; to a certain degree every one of them relies on the others to prosper, indeed, the need for media coverage of a sport is considered so important that in 1994 the Hockey Association paid BSkyB to screen games each week, in the hope that this would start the ball rolling, and they could break hockey into the public eye. This is an example of the power that the media are starting to get over sport. So, the first subject is that of the salaries of top professional sportsmen and women. In order to relate this to the title question, we must look at not only why the competitors are being paid so much, but also who they are being paid by. It is often the case that a top class competitor does not earn as high an income from prize money as you might expect, but that a large percentage - in some cases the majority - of their earnings is made up of money that they earn from sponsorship deals with various sports equipment and clothing manufacturers. For example, Steffi Graf earns approximately $4m from prize money each year, but increases that by $8m from her sponsorship deal with Adidas, plus around another $4m generated by other 'minor' sponsorship deals. (1) If an unheard of competitor was to win a major grand slam in a solo event such as tennis, then I think it is fair to say that the victory would be worth more to them in terms of publicity and related sponsorship offers than it would in terms of the actual prize money, which would not be inconsiderable in itself. The message, then, is that there is certainly a lot of money to be made in professional sport nowadays, but it hasn't always been like this, so why has it become so?
This is the impact that commercialism and the media have had on sport in the simplest terms - an injection of money which has meant better televisual coverage of sport, better playing conditions, better equipment, larger audiences at home and live (with some exceptions - football in England used to have far larger crowds live at the game than it ever does now, but that is because of new safety regulations that have been imposed - without these some of the largest stadiums could possibly double their capacity), and of course larger salaries for the participants at top level. This naturally makes the sport more competitive, as the high salaries appeal to people who may not have otherwise considered a career as a professional sportsman. As a result of the increased competition, it is harder to break into the sport from ground level but this does mean that the standard of sport being played improves even more and so does the commercial and media interest, putting more and more money into the situation, which sends sport into an ever ascending spiral Theoretically. This I say because although the overall effect created by commercialism and the media has been one of an input of money, which is almost certainly a good thing, there has been a price to pay for all this, that is to say that the media interest has not been free - they want their -returns, and I think it is true that some of the effects of all this interest have not been entirely beneficial, or in the best interest of the sports concerned.
There are a few fairly obvious examples of this that I have come up with. Firstly, the half time of a British football match - which used to be only ten minutes - has now gone up to fifteen. This probably seems an inconsiderable change, and in many ways it is, but it is the reasons for the change that are not in the best interests of the game. The reason that the half time was extended may have been to allow more time for advertisements, which pay the TV company so that they in turn can offer such high levels of funding to the sport. This is not a certainty, as at the time of the change most football was covered by the BBC, who don't allow advertisements anyway. There is however the possibility of a similar thing happening to English rugby, as the five minute half ti me isn't really enough to consider possible newly allowed tactical substitutions, and media interest in the sport has increased dramatically since it became professional. An even more extreme example of this is in the American Superbowl, for coverage of which TV channels can offer almost anything, knowing that they will more than recover their costs in the extortionate amounts they charge for advertising not only during intervals in the game, but also each time a new play is set up - in lesser games illegal examples of subliminal advertising can occur at this time as well. This Superbowl advertising is known to be the most expensive advertising on TV, priced now a $1.2m per 30 seconds, due to the enormous amount of people watching it - over 120 million in the USA alone in 1994. (2) Another way in which rules have been altered as a result of media interest is in the NBA, where zone defence is now illegal. This tactic, which was previously commonly used, involved each player being responsible for an area of the court rather than any particular player, but pressure for larger audiences from the media meant that now only man-to-man defence is allowed, which pits each player against an other, and is thought of as much more of a personal struggle between players, and so is more interesting to watch. Perhaps worse than these is the next example ,which is not of rule changes due to media attention, but is indisputably a result of the extra money which is now involved in the sport of boxing. Chris Eubank was very well known as a boxer, and fairly well respected, although I'm sure everyone that has heard of him has also heard of his famous quote that he was only in it for the money, and intended to quit a soon as he was able. Indeed, he had said often that he did not like boxing at all. Surely this is not the way in which we would want top performers of a sport to act, especially in their position as role models. This could never have happened if there was not so much money involved in the sport of boxing, which in turn could not have happened without all the media interest that provided the money.
An example of individuals who have developed an image they may not have otherwise is Dennis Rodman. Dennis has always had the image of being the 'bad boy' of the NBA, which could arguably have made potential sponsors less interested in him, as they may have felt that his temper was too unreliable for him to be associated with their brand name. On the other hand, due to a lot of the culture which is associated with the NBA, this image is one which has made him the idol of many young hopefuls, as he is seen to have his own distinctive style, and always gets noticed. This is a fact which would work contrary to the one above, and therefore make potential sponsors more interested in him. All of this may well have gone entirely unnoticed if it was not for the enormous media attention that the NBA receives - but then, that is why the sponsors are interested at all. In contrast, Michael Jordan has the image of the ultimate Mr Clean" - despite them playing currently for the same team. More than this even, Jordan's excellent image and unrivalled skill in his game have made him one of the highest paid athletes in the world today, with earnings of around $33m pa, $23m of which comes from the same company that sponsors Rodman - Nike.
The big names therefore are obviously largely interested in making big money, but their influence stretches far beyond the basketball court. Having secured their label to the idols of thousands the obvious next step for the big companies is to introduce merchandising. By wearing the Rodman shirt, or the Jordan shoes, people not only feel that little bit closer to their heroes, but also feel that they themselves can perhaps play a little better. This is all conjured up by clever advertising campaigns involving these superstars, and deals that mean the players have to perform wearing designated equipment. This is taken to almost unbelievable extremes, such as in the case of the original Dream Team - America's national basketball team competing in the Olympics in 1992. The team as a whole were sponsored by Reebok, but as Jordan had signed a binding deal with Nike, he took to the podium wearing a Nike towel around his neck, which cleverly obscured the Reebok motif on his tracksuit. The message that onlookers et is that of the champion of champions wearing Nike, and specifically not Reebok, turning the sporting event into more of a marketing exercise than it really ought to be. Another by-product of the media bandwagon is something that has become commonplace in the USA, and is even happening on this side of the Atlantic - pay per view. This is presently confined to boxing matches over here, but could conceivably spread to every major event broadcast. It is essentially nothing more than a way of generating additional income for whoever buys the rights to the event - if a fee is not received for a subscriber to the channel, then the action never reaches their screen. The channel would argue that it is a business, and that in the business world this is a perfectly legitimate tactic - but not in the sporting world. The whole beginning of media cove rage was in order to increase the availability of sport to the general public Now we find that major events - the recent Tyson-Holyfield fight and the Davis cup are two examples - are firstly being offered only to specific channel subscribers, then only to subscribers who pay an additional fee - effectively they subscribe just for the later opportunity to buy something they may want to see. Perhaps sport in general needs to consider if it needs the media enough to make itself a slave to them.
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Sports Studies :Sport and Media in The United State
Amy Swainston, Year 12
In this project I am going to look at the effects of commercialism, and the role of the media in US sport.
Advertising and media play an important part in American industry, not just in relation to sport. In the late 1980's, approximately 120 billion dollars was spent on all general advertising, in one single year. (1)
Major US media exists mainly in the forms of newspapers, television, radio, and magazines.
Sport in America, at all levels, from school teams to top professional teams, is run as a business, with financial gain as the main factor.
The diagram shows the American model of sport:
Diagram 1 Professional sport in America, namely basketball, baseball and American football, has always attracted millions of spectators, and now it can be seen by millions of other people on the television. Sports teams are paid large amounts of money by T.V. networks and stations for the rights to televise major games. This money is then used to pay the players and athletes. This televising of major sports has increased the popularity of professional sport, though it is thought that amateur leagues have suffered due to this, as people have lost interest in following these games.
Broadcasting companies will pay millions to cover top sporting events, for example, NBC won the rights to televise the 1992 Barcelona Olympics with a bid of 401 million dollars (3). And this kind of bidding is continuously on the rise. NBC paid 456 million dollar (4) to televise the 1996 Atlanta Olympics, and in August this year, they again won the US broadcasting rights to televise the Sydney Olympics in the year 2000, this time with a bid of 715 million dollars.. However, despite the competition to win the rights to televise professional sports events, America's amateur events are just as sought for. It is estimated that one out of every four college basketball games are televised. ESPN, the 'all-sports cable network' is the most profitable cable channel in the USA. Altogether, ESPN broadcasts 8760 hours of programming a year, which is four times the sports output of the BBC. In 1990, it had an estimated annual profit of 75 million dollar (6)
American Football is one of the most watched American sports. For the 1994 Super bowl, 750 million viewers (7) from around the world were watching, and about 120 million (8) of these viewers were Americans, which is approximately half of the population at that time. It is also one of the many sports that has been affected by televising, and spectator enjoyment. Many sports have been adapted to cope with the demands of the rapidly increasing televising of sport, however the coverage is essential to the survival of all sports, as without it, they will not be brought to people's attention, and will not be promoted, resulting in them being left behind in the public eye.
In the early 1970's, American football officials decided that to increase spectator enjoyment, they would move the hash marks closer to the centre of the pitch, to give offenses more room to throw wide. This in turn would increase the scoring rate, making it more exciting for the spectators. However, this rule change meant that the players no longer passed as much, and as the defenses adjusted to the new style of play, the scoring was dramatically reduced. This again resulted in a loss of interest from the spectators, and audience numbers started to decline. So despite the attempt to increase the popularity of the game, the consequences were in fact opposite. In 1977, the rules were changed again to try and overcome the new problem. Another adaptation of this kind was the new rule made that teams in the NBA must play man for man defence and not zone, as it makes the game more exciting and enjoyable for the spectators, by adding an element of one on one competition. Another example of these adaptations is to accommodate for advertising. Interval length in many games have been greatly increased to allow for advertisements. These commercial breaks are also much more frequent than they previously were, for example in American football, there is a commercial break almost every time the ball goes off pitch. We can also see the effects of this in Britain. An example of this is in football, as the half-time break was increased ,from ten minutes to fifteen minutes, to allow for advertisements.
Companies will pay several times more to advertise during major games, such as the super bowl, as the money must be repaid by the publicity it gives them. For example, during the 1996 Super bowl, it cost advertisers 1.2 million dollars (9) for thirty seconds of air time. It must be a profitable system for the companies to think it is worth the investment However, despite the negative effects that television has had on sport, there are also positive consequences. For example, it is thought that when a Country's teams are successful in International events, the participation in that sport, at an amateur level, increases. The effects of this are that it is a way of bringing sport into everybody's homes, and encouraging people to learn about, and participate in new sports.
Sponsorship is essential in funding sport, as the money is needed in order for individuals and teams to have the equipment and facilities they need to succeed. For the companies and organisations involved, it is a means of cheap advertising and image - if people can relate them to a positive and healthy way of life, they will be looked on in a more approving way. The big Sports Clothing companies sponsor all the big players as a means of advertising. Names such as Nike and Reebok can be seen worn by all the top athletes, such as Olympic Gold medallist Michael Johnson, and top L.A basketball player Shaquille O'Neil, and there is a great deal of rivalry between the companies. Competition between athletes also means competition between sporting brands. But this sponsorship also has positive effects for the athletes involved. They can become well known very quickly, and can have their career made for them before they have even had the chance to be a success.
'The American Dream' is the idea that you can be a success from nothing, and this reflects the Lombardian 'Win at all costs' ethic prevalent in the US. Media in the sporting industry depends wholly on money. Many large companies sponsor sporting teams and events because of the publicity it will give them. Individual motivation can often come from the desire for media attraction, and financial gain.
The effects of the media industry on sport have become particularly apparent over the last few years. The diagram below shows the influences of media coverage on sport in America: Diagram 2 This diagram outlines the vicious circle that faces sport. In order to obtain sponsors, media coverage is essential. However, in order to gain media coverage, sports need the money to pay the players, to get them up to a standard that will be found attractive by the media. This can give us an idea of how important money is to US sport. Popularity of the sports relies greatly on public interest, and public interest can only be gained by attention and coverage from the media. Also, the money required to supply the necessary facilities needed to produce top athletes can be obtained from commercialism and sponsorship, making them an essential part of any sporting success.
In conclusion, we can see that the media and the commercial industry have had a great effect on sport in the US.
Money has become the main power behind the sporting industry, and is essential in keeping it afloat. The most profitable way for money to be made is through media coverage, commercialism and sponsorship. These factors can all use sport as a promotion outlet, using its world-wide popularity to their companies' best advantage. It is also a way of filtering money into sport, to provide facilities and training for both existing, as well as up and coming athletes of today
So we can see that commercialism and media have escalated to the extent that they now control most sport in America, and have now become an essential part in the funding and survival of all sports.
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