A selection of the best from recent issues of the Philosopher

A re-introduction to Marcus Aurelius is long overdue. Alan Stedall satisfies this deficiency in an interesting and stimulating way. The core of his book is a pastiche. The haphazard philosophical jottings of a Roman Emperor, otherwise engaged in war zones and affairs of state, are recast in the form of a stylish Greek dialogue.Ý 

Naturally, as they gain in style the Meditations lose their rugged impact. The Dialogues are eminently readable and immediate. The Meditations are not: they are nuggety, sometimes obscure and by no means consistent. 

The beauty of Alan Stedall's book is that it leads the modern reader easily into an ancient world. It is a world with familiar problems but of people tackling them in unfamiliar ways, especially the central character. To read the Meditations is to enter the mind set of a deeply thoughtful person living in the pre-Christian era. 

 Only two people who governed Rome during a thousand years of classical history left insight into the workings of their minds. Cicero, consul in 63 BCE, sought to be remembered for all time. He wrote elegant essays, treaties, speeches and letters for posterity. Marcus Aurelius, Emperor from 161 to 180 CE, did not value posthumous fame but jotted down aides memoires to inform his meditation and life style. Deconstruction of the writings of the former is child's play; of the latterÖneigh on impossible. 

Cicero attended the academy of Posidonius (d 51 BCE) at Rhodes, frequented by the Roman elite. It is ironic that Posidonius, the most profound of Stoic philosophers, taught such sybarites as Cicero, Pompey the Great and probably Julius Caesar; although they went to Rhodes primarily to study law and oratory under sophists, who obviously were the more influential. 

Nowadays Posidonius is remembered for associating Atlantic tides and the orbit of the moon, scientific observation being his forte, with human psychology as his main interest.Ý Galen made use of his scientific works.Ý The Emotions of Galen accept the view of Posidonius that anger and appetite are innate, irrational driving forces, not malfunctions of the rational mind - as Aristotelians and in fact Marcus Aurelius had it: ira furore temporalis est. 

Caesar Augustus, who benefited from brief acquaintance with Cicero, gained imperium for life to secure the boundaries of the Roman world and perpetual peace. This role he bequeathed to his successor emperors, of whom one, some hundred and fifty years later, was Marcus Aurelius. 

Plague reduced the legions of Marcus Aurelius and northern barbarians took advantage. He chose not to restore the Rhine-Danube boundary prescribed by Caesar Augustus but aspired to control northern Europe with the distant Vistula as its eastern boundary. Predictably he failed but the endeavor took up much of his time. He was rarely in Rome and - consequently? - much loved by Romans. 
Marcus Aurelius did not direct from afar. Indeed, he successfully led his legions into battle. He directed much social and monetary reform. He summoned Galen and Harnouphis, doyens of Greek and Egyptian medicine, for advice on eradication of plague. He occupied his many roles diligently, including that of pontifex maximus: head of the state religion. He could confidently anticipate apotheosis to divinity after his death. Yet throughout he valued peace of mind above all else and, incidentally, did not even anticipate afterlife, divine or otherwise. 
The aide memoire jottings of Marcus Aurelius demonstrate concern with conduct of his public and private lives.Ý 

His stoicism was not taught him by his tutors, who were sophists. He read Chrysippus, who consolidated the teachings of Zeno (f 300 BCE), founder of Stoicism. Zeno taught in a multi-columned, multi-coloured hall: the Stoa Poikile in Athens, from which his bleak ethical teachings derive their name. ÝMarcus Aurelius also had the record his colleague Arrian (d 160 CE) made of the ethical teachings of Epicetetus, a first century CE freedman, who had been crippled in servitude and whose general ill health was attributed to hardship suffered as a slave. 

Throughout the classical world Stoicism dominated the thinking of men in public life, who allowed themselves space to think at all, from the time of Chrysippus (f 230 BCE) and for the five following centuries - until the Neo-Platonist takeover by Plotinus (d 270 CE), who was precursor of the totalitarian Christian hegemony. Whilst the rest of Stoic philosophy, especially scientific method and observation developed over the centuries, the stoic ethic remained essentially constant throughout. Ý 

Stoicism illuminated the public and private lives of Marcus Aurelius, informed his actions and excited his spirit. It is these responses to a discipline addressed intimately to the soul of man that has attracted generations of admirers of Marcus Aurelius. It has attracted Alan Stedall.Ý 

The Meditations can not be deconstructed because they lack artifice. Marcus Aurelius offers nothing to anybody else. He is a challenge to himself alone. We are voyeurs into very private experience. This is not 'The Ascent of Mount Carmel' by John of the Cross, as recorded on instruction by his ecclesiastical superiors. No one ever instructed Marcus Aurelius to do anything. He is writing for himself alone. 
This is the perennial paradox of perennial philosophy. You are on your own or you have not yet set out. Recall, Pythagoras forbade the use of written records because written words are dead on the page. All spiritual instruction has to be by word of mouth, has to have sound equivalence, natural harmony. 

And Marcus Aurelius lives Stoic philosophy and through In the Meditations we can catch glimpses of him doing so. He does not invite us to share self awareness, nor offer us a way of following in his footsteps - because we were never intended to see them. The Meditations are the most private document to have survived. 
Teachers, such as Patanjali and John of the Cross, offer training manuals. Marcus Aurelius' prescription is for himself.Ý That is why it reads so much more chillingly than the others. 

In places the intimacy of the Meditations makes one's skin crawl. For this reason it can be off-putting. Alan Stedall has neatly circumvented this problem by recasting the gist of the Meditations as dialogues. ÝThe dialogues, an all male after dinner affair à la Plato, takes place at Aquileia on the Adriatic coast, between Marcus Aurelius, his co-emperor half brother Lucius Aelius Verus, Galen and Harnouphis. The last two having been summoned to advise on getting rid of the plague. This meeting really did happen and at this location. The dialogues are an invention of its author, reported by the Prefect of the Praetorian Guard, who is the emperor's confidant. 

The subjects covered are the brevity of life and need to seek meaning, the pursuit of purpose, the supreme good and pursuit of the virtuous life. ÝAn epilogue on Gods and the concludes. Their author points out that no attempt has been made to be comprehensive and some additions have been made to maintain the flow. There is an introduction outlining the life of Marcus Aurelius and the place of the Meditations in the philosophical and social context of their times. 
But the author's introduction opens with a frank account of his loss of Christian faith and the benefits he has found in the practice of the precepts of Marcus Aurelius. The book closes with an appendix that returns to this theme and its general relevance. Amongst the author's objectives is a consensus around a set of life-affirming moral beliefs that are robust enough to withstand the rigour of reasoned debate. His essential concern is that rampant materialism, unhindered by any generally accepted ethical proscription, will degrade the natural environment to the point where nature cannot sustain human life. 

The stark reality is that we are conditioned by Christian ethics. During the centuries following the death of Marcus Aurelius Ambrose, Augustine et al modified Christian doctrine into a contender for state religion. Forgiveness of sins, life after death, just wars under the protection of an almighty god, material rewards in this life for leadersÖall very persuasive stuff. The development of Christian doctrine keeps it acceptable to the rich and powerful down the ages. 
Christian doctrine is made to condone rampant materialism and concomitant environmental degradation in the interests of economic growth. The protection of an almighty god will no doubt safeguard the natural environment and failing that there is everlasting life wherever. 
Alan Stedall takes us back to pre-Christian times and offers Marcus Aurelius, which is admirable. The more who follow his example the better. ÝChaos theory predicts mighty happenings from small beginnings. 

Stoic philosophy is restricted to certainty about the world around us. Stoic ethics require constraint and contribution to society to the limits of our talents. Stoicism demands agreement between spiritual life and responsible conduct in society, as an indissolubly linked whole, without reward other than peace of mind. 

In fact we have despoiled the planet to the point where there is another and major reward available. Cicero in 'The Second Philippic against Mark Antony' (a desk exercise he most certainly did not deliver as a speech to the Senate) parries Antony's claim to have saved his life by asserting all Antony had ever done was to resist murdering him. By the same token to live by the ethics of Stoicism and stop destroying the natural environment is a phenomenal reward for this generation leading to the prospect of future ones. Such powerful motivation is irresistible. 

If not. Why not? One may well ask who amongst contemporary moral philosophers is screaming from the roof tops? What do proponents of contemporary ethics wish to contribute? The response will not be deafening. 

From Rusticus I learned to read carefully and not be satisfied with a superficial understanding of a book. Alan Stedall's book is an introduction that helps break the ice on the chilling but stimulating experience of the Meditations, which merit much more than a superficial understanding.